IBM's COMTRAN language, invented by Bob Bemer, was regarded as a competitor to FLOW-MATIC[41][42] by a short-range committee made up of colleagues of Grace Hopper.[43]Some of its features were not incorporated into COBOL so that it would not look like IBM had dominated the design process,[26] and Jean Sammet said in 1981 that there had been a "strong anti-IBM bias" from some committee members (herself included).[44]In one case, after Roy Goldfinger, author of the COMTRAN manual and intermediate-range committee member, attended a subcommittee meeting to support his language and encourage the use of algebraic expressions, Grace Hopper sent a memo to the short-range committee reiterating Sperry Rand's efforts to create a language based on English.[45]In 1980, Grace Hopper commented that "COBOL 60 is 95% FLOW-MATIC" and that COMTRAN had had an "extremely small" influence. Furthermore, she said that she would claim that work was influenced by both FLOW-MATIC and COMTRAN only to "keep other people happy [so they] wouldn't try to knock us out".[46]Features from COMTRAN incorporated into COBOL included formulas,[47] the PICTURE clause,[48] an improved IF statement, which obviated the need for GO TOs, and a more robust file management system.[41]
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The usefulness of the committee's work was subject of great debate. While some members thought the language had too many compromises and was the result of design by committee, others felt it was better than the three languages examined. Some felt the language was too complex; others, too simple.[49]Controversial features included those some considered useless or too advanced for data processing users. Such features included boolean expressions, formulas and table subscripts (indices).[50][51] Another point of controversy was whether to make keywords context-sensitive and the effect that would have on readability.[50] Although context-sensitive keywords were rejected, the approach was later used in PL/I and partially in COBOL from 2002.[52] Little consideration was given to interactivity, interaction with operating systems (few existed at that time) and functions (thought of as purely mathematical and of no use in data processing).[53][54]
No warranty, expressed or implied, is made by any contributor or by the CODASYL COBOL Committee as to the accuracy and functioning of theprogramming system and language. Moreover, no responsibility is assumed by any contributor, or by the committee, in connection therewith. The authors and copyright holders of the copyrighted material used herein are as follows:
COBOL has an English-like syntax, which is used to describe nearly everything in a program. For example, a condition can be expressed as x IS GREATER THAN y or more concisely as x GREATER y or x > y. More complex conditions can be "abbreviated" by removing repeated conditions and variables. For example, a > b AND a > c OR a = d can be shortened to a > b AND c OR = d. To support this English-like syntax, COBOL has over 300 keywords.[119][d] Some of the keywords are simple alternative or pluralized spellings of the same word, which provides for more English-like statements and clauses; e.g., the IN and OF keywords can be used interchangeably, as can TIME and TIMES, and VALUE and VALUES.
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In the 19th century, the Rosetta Stone helped scholars at long last crack the code of hieroglyphics, the ancient Egyptian writing system. ATT&CK is the Rosetta Stone for modern defenses, helping the defense industry crack the code of the sophisticated attacks.
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Abstract:Meso-structure is an important factor affecting the characteristics of rock fracture. To determine the factors influencing the internal meso-structural characteristics upon the crack generation and extension, rock samples were tested under uniaxial cyclic loading and unloading and examined using computed tomography (CT) scanning. CT scanning was used to visualize and investigate the entire process of fracture source generation and its development in three dimensions, and finally the location information of the fracture source was determined. The mineral composition and structure along the fracture path inside the specimen were studied by using a polarizing microscope, and the evolution of fracture propagation around mineral particles was revealed based on its mineralogical characteristics. Results indicate that based on the fracture source around different rock meso-structure types, the initial fracture source can also be divided into different types, namely, the primary porosity type, the micro-crack type, and the mineral grain type. The strength characteristics of mineral grains can determine whether the crack extends around the gravel or through it. The hard grains at the crack-tip promote the transformation of tensile stress to shear stress, which lead to the change in the direction of crack extension and bifurcation. The spatial shape of the cracks after rock fracture is related to the initial distribution of minerals and is more complicated in areas where minerals are concentrated. The crack extension around gravel particles also generates a mode of failure, affecting large grains with gravel spalling from the matrix. The findings provide a study basis for identifying the potentially dangerous areas and provide early warning for the safety of underground engineering construction operations.Keywords: meso-structure; initial fracture source; crack propagation path; mineral particles
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